How Does PFAS End Up in Wastewater?
- Last updated: July 17, 2025
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Contributor:
nicky
PFAS in wastewater has emerged as a subject of growing concern, reflecting broader worries about the persistence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the environment. These human-made chemicals, particularly Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS), gained extensive industrial and consumer uses starting in the 1940s. Because they break down very slowly, PFAS can linger in water, soil, and even our bodies for extended periods. As a result, communities across the United States are taking a closer look at how PFAS enter sewer systems, whether conventional wastewater treatment processes can remove them, and what potential risks exist to both public health and the environment.
We understand that many individuals are deeply worried about PFAS. Some have been exposed for years to contaminated water or other sources, while others report ongoing health challenges potentially linked to PFAS. Our aim here is to present a comprehensive, fact-based overview of where PFAS in wastewater originates, how it behaves in wastewater treatment systems, and how government agencies are responding. We will also look at the implications of PFAS-laden sludge when it is applied to farmland, the regulatory landscape, and the question of liability.
What are the main sources of PFAS?
PFAS are manufactured chemicals valued for their heat resistance, stain repellency, and nonstick properties. Their durability has driven decades of use in industrial applications and consumer products, including:
Nonstick cookware
Water-repellent fabrics
Food packaging materials
Firefighting foams
Industrial cleaning solutions
Because of their widespread usage, PFAS can reach the environment through multiple pathways. For instance, facilities producing or handling PFAS may release effluent into nearby bodies of water. Discarded items containing PFAS can leach chemicals into landfills, eventually finding their way into groundwater. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most people in the United States have been exposed to at least some level of PFAS, primarily because these substances became common in various consumer goods.
We have also observed that certain demographic groups experience more extensive exposure than others. Individuals working with PFAS-based substances or living near industrial sites face potentially higher concentrations. Children, in particular, may face unique risks. Researchers highlight that children can be exposed through contaminated water used to make formula, breast milk, or even in utero during pregnancy.
How do PFAS enter municipal sewer systems?
PFAS often reach municipal sewer systems through the routine discharges of households, businesses, and industrial facilities. Even standard activities such as washing clothes or dishes can release low levels of PFAS if these chemicals are present in detergents, fabrics, or other treated materials. Over time, continuous low-level sources can accumulate.
Municipal sewer systems may also receive PFAS from:
Leachate from landfills, where PFAS-containing items were discarded
Effluent directly from factories that rely on PFAS for production
Pre-treatment processes from commercial businesses, including car washes or laundromats
Once PFAS enter a sewer system, they typically remain dissolved in the wastewater. Research by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) indicates that traditional wastewater treatment plants were not originally designed to handle or destroy PFAS compounds. Instead, many of these systems focus on reducing organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other common pollutants.
Can industrial discharges contribute to PFAS wastewater levels?
Industrial discharges represent one of the more direct ways PFAS can enter municipal wastewater streams. Manufacturers of carpets, textiles, and nonstick coatings often rely on PFAS-based formulations. If those facilities do not fully capture and treat their process water on-site, residual PFAS can flow to a local wastewater treatment plant.
According to EPA data, certain industries might still discharge PFAS despite best efforts at pre-treatment, because conventional filtration or chemical processes do not fully remove these chemicals. Facilities involved in metal plating, electronics production, or paper treatment can also be contributors. Additional factors, such as inadequate onsite treatment or outdated equipment, can result in higher PFAS loadings.
At this stage, many municipalities recognize the need for closer oversight. Some states have begun to regulate PFAS discharges more strictly, requiring industrial facilities to install specific treatment systems or manage PFAS-laden waste more carefully. Nonetheless, the question of who pays for these additional treatment costs remains open-ended, and it often becomes an issue of liability under environmental statutes and legal frameworks—including potential PFAS liability claims.
Do firefighting foams impact wastewater systems?
Firefighting foams, historically used in military bases, airports, and industrial settings, are another well-documented source of PFAS. Known as Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFF), these formulations were prized for rapidly extinguishing petroleum-based fires. However, these same properties allowed large volumes of PFAS to wash into soil or storm drains, eventually reaching surface or groundwater.
If runoff containing firefighting foam enters a municipal collection system, wastewater treatment plants must cope with higher PFAS concentrations. Over many years, sites with repeated AFFF use may experience leaching of PFAS residue long after firefighting activities have ceased. This issue has prompted significant further inquiry, especially around contaminated training fields where foam was routinely deployed.
“We are committed to addressing Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl substances in drinking water and wastewater while following the law,” Administrator Zeldin said in a recent announcement, highlighting the EPA’s focus in this area.
How effective are wastewater treatment plants at removing PFAS?
Traditional treatment methods—including primary settling, biological processes, and chemical clarification—can be effective for many pollutants. However, these standard processes often struggle to remove PFAS from wastewater. Techniques such as coagulation and flocculation, which help most contaminants bind to larger particles for removal, have limited success with PFAS. The chemical characteristics of PFAS mean they do not easily bind to coagulants or polymers.
Similarly, biological treatment processes rely on bacteria to digest organic matter. PFAS, particularly PFOA and PFOS, are chemically stable and do not break down readily in these systems, so they can pass largely unchanged into the effluent.
Emerging treatment options
Some advanced processes have shown promise for PFAS removal:
Granular activated carbon (GAC)
Adsorbs many PFAS chemicals, although effectiveness varies depending on PFAS chain length.
May require frequent replacement or reactivation if high concentrations are present.
Ion exchange resins
Targets charged molecules, potentially capturing certain PFAS compounds.
Performance depends on resin type and on-site conditions.
High-pressure membrane systems
Reverse osmosis and nanofiltration can remove PFAS, but these methods are expensive.
Require disposal or further treatment of the PFAS-concentrated brine.
Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)
Utilize hydroxyl radicals generated by combining hydrogen peroxide with ozone or UV light.
Offer potential for PFAS destruction rather than just removal, but cost remains a barrier.
While these technologies can reduce PFAS levels in treated wastewater, they can be expensive to install and maintain. Moreover, the question of how to handle captured PFAS—whether in spent carbon or concentrate streams—also remains a challenge for water utilities. For more details on potential treatments, see PFAS treatment technologies.
What happens when PFAS-contaminated sludge is spread on farmland?
Sludge, also called biosolids, is a byproduct of municipal wastewater treatment. Many utilities spread biosolids on agricultural fields as a source of nutrients. However, if those biosolids contain elevated PFAS levels, soil and crops may become contaminated. PFAS can then transfer into groundwater if they leach from the soil.
Because PFAS resist degradation, they can remain in the environment for years. Several case studies have documented situations in which farmland sludge application led to PFAS contamination of well water and local produce. In some situations, regulatory agencies have advised farmers to cease using or consuming contaminated crops. According to the EPA, prolonged exposure to higher levels of PFAS can have adverse health outcomes, and caution is advised for communities that rely on well water.
What are the environmental risks of PFAS in wastewater?
PFAS contamination in aquatic habitats raises several ecological and human health concerns. In September 2024, the EPA published final science-based water quality concentrations for 10 PFAS chemicals to help states and Tribes protect fish and other aquatic life. These benchmarks inform water quality standards under the Clean Water Act. Persistent chemicals like PFAS may bioaccumulate, concentrating in tissues of fish or wildlife and posing potential risks up the food chain.
Communities relying on fish for subsistence or commercial purposes note the potential for long-term contamination. The slow breakdown of PFAS chemicals means that once introduced into watersheds, they can remain there indefinitely, absent specialized treatment or containment measures. Some individuals found elevated PFAS levels in local fish or shellfish, prompting consumption advisories.
From a human health standpoint, exposure to certain PFAS has been associated with possible effects on the immune system, cholesterol levels, and certain cancers, though research remains ongoing. Additional information about these potential outcomes is provided at our dedicated page on PFAS health effects.
Is there government regulation of PFAS in wastewater?
Most regulatory efforts on PFAS initially focused on drinking water rather than wastewater. For instance, the EPA maintains maximum contaminant levels for PFOA and PFOS in public water supplies. In February 2023, the EPA announced that $2 billion from the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law would be available to help states and territories address emerging contaminants, including PFAS, in drinking water. Much of that funding goes toward small or disadvantaged communities without the budget to upgrade their treatment systems.
With respect to wastewater, some measures are being introduced incrementally:
In December 2022, the EPA proposed a rule to enhance the reporting of PFAS data to the Toxics Release Inventory, thereby increasing transparency.
In August 2022, the agency proposed designating PFOA and PFOS as hazardous substances under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). If adopted, this designation could pave the way for stricter remediation requirements.
Several states have taken the lead by setting numerical effluent limits for PFAS at certain wastewater treatment facilities.
Given the patchwork of state-level rules, many in the environmental community are calling for broader, unified federal regulations. Additional oversight may also come from updated guidelines around PFAS remediation, PFAS monitoring, and further studies on the potential for advanced destruction technologies.
Who is responsible for PFAS wastewater contamination?
Responsibility often extends across a spectrum of stakeholders. Industrial producers who manufacture or use PFAS may bear liability under environmental statutes if their discharges exceed permissible levels. Municipalities responsible for wastewater treatment systems might also face scrutiny if PFAS are not adequately managed. In some cases, manufacturers of firefighting foams have already confronted legal actions related to contamination.
Nonetheless, individuals themselves are seldom directly liable for PFAS in wastewater, since the consumer-level use of PFAS-laden products (and the associated unintentional releases) is difficult to regulate. Many feel that corporate polluters should shoulder the costs of cleanup and advanced treatment. Understanding these issues can be vital if you or someone you know has been affected by PFAS pollution. If you want to learn more about legal options, you can visit the PFAS lawsuit page to see if you may be eligible for a free case review.
Frequently asked questions (FAQ)
How does PFAS reach drinking water from wastewater?
Treated wastewater released into rivers or other water bodies can still contain PFAS. Nearby communities may rely on these sources for drinking water. Although additional treatment exists at drinking water plants, not all facilities remove PFAS effectively. For more information, see PFAS in drinking water.
Does spreading sludge on farmland always pose a risk?
Not necessarily. The level of risk depends on PFAS concentrations in the biosolids, how frequently they are applied, and local soil and water conditions. Some municipalities conduct routine PFAS testing on sludge before distributing it for agricultural use.
What industries are most likely to contribute to PFAS in wastewater?
Textile manufacturers, nonstick coating producers, metal plating facilities, and paper treatment plants are among the main contributors. These sites often use PFAS for surface treatments, stain repellents, or chemical stability.
Can I test my tap water or well water for PFAS?
Specialized testing is required to accurately detect PFAS at very low concentrations. We suggest contacting a PFAS testing lab or consulting your local health department to learn about testing options in your area.
Are home filters effective at removing PFAS from tap water?
Some filtration methods, such as those using granular activated carbon or reverse osmosis, have been shown to reduce PFAS levels. The effectiveness may vary, and filters require timely maintenance or replacement. For details, see how to remove pfas from water.
Can PFAS be destroyed instead of just removed?
Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) show promise in breaking down certain PFAS compounds, but these methods are currently expensive and require significant technical resources. Research continues to refine these technologies.
Where can I find official data on PFAS contamination in my area?
The EPA’s interactive PFAS Analytic Tools can provide an overview of known PFAS sources and data across the United States. You can also check your state’s environmental protection agency for site-specific information. A PFAS contamination map may also help you see broader patterns of PFAS pollution.
What if I suspect my health issues are connected to PFAS exposure?
We recommend speaking with a medical professional for an evaluation, as well as contacting environmental agencies for local sampling data. You can also learn more about health-related findings at pfas health effects. If you believe legal recourse is warranted, the PFAS lawsuit page explains possible next steps.
What health conditions qualify for legal or medical claims?
Individuals who develop chronic illnesses potentially linked to PFAS often ask about legal or medical recourse. In some cases, people living near industrial discharge sites or military bases with firefighting foam use have pursued lawsuits, alleging contamination led to cancers or other injuries. However, legal standards for proving causation can be rigorous. Each claim often hinges on identifying a clear exposure pathway, medical diagnosis, and recognized scientific evidence connecting that condition to PFAS.
While there is no single list of guaranteed qualifying conditions, common inquiries include cancer, thyroid disease, and immune-related disorders. Attorneys familiar with PFAS litigation can offer more detailed guidance on how to document exposure and demonstrate that harm likely resulted. We recommend consulting specialists to evaluate your case. For those seeking a free case review, resources are available at Legal Claim Assistant, where potential clients can connect with lawyers experienced in PFAS lawsuits. It is also advisable to speak with medical professionals knowledgeable about PFAS-related health assessments.
Can you get tested for PFAS exposure?
Yes, blood tests can detect certain PFAS compounds, particularly PFOA and PFOS. However, these tests typically do not provide a direct diagnosis of how PFAS has impacted health. They simply indicate the presence and concentration of these substances in the bloodstream. If you suspect contamination in your vicinity, you may consult a pfas testing lab or speak with public health officials about expanded testing programs.
The EPA and some state agencies offer guidance on water sampling for residences or private wells, which can help individuals determine if removal systems are necessary. Regular monitoring, sometimes referred to as pfas monitoring, may be an option in areas with suspected or known contamination. While knowing PFAS levels can clarify exposure, research has yet to identify a precise threshold at which illness becomes inevitable. If you have a chronic health condition associated with PFAS in the scientific literature, sharing testing data with your healthcare team can provide additional context for treatment and potential interventions.
Frequently asked questions (FAQ)
What is the difference between PFOA and PFOS?
PFOA and PFOS are two of the most studied PFAS compounds. Both were phased out of many consumer products in the early 2000s due to concerns about persistence and potential toxicity. However, many replacement PFAS with similar structures have emerged, and their health risks are still under investigation.
Which PFAS are regulated by the EPA?
In April 2024, the EPA finalized National Primary Drinking Water Regulations for six PFAS. These include individual maximum contaminant levels for PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS, PFNA, and HFPO-DA, along with a Hazard Index approach for mixtures of these substances. Some decisions are undergoing reconsideration, but the key aim is to reduce harmful PFAS exposure for millions of people.
Does the new EPA regulation address all PFAS risks?
The regulation targets specific PFAS in drinking water and does not cover all PFAS found in the environment. Research on thousands of PFAS compounds remains ongoing. Broader legislation and additional policies may evolve to include other PFAS, depending on emerging data and risk assessments.
Can filters remove PFAS from drinking water?
Certain filtration methods can lower PFAS concentrations. Carbon filters and reverse osmosis systems have demonstrated effectiveness, though results vary by setup and compound. More details are available at do carbon filters remove pfas and does reverse osmosis remove pfas.
Where can I find more information on PFAS contamination or testing?
Many state health departments provide local advisories. Nationally, the EPA and CDC offer guidance on testing methods and health implications. You may also consult nonprofit environmental organizations or independent labs for further resources.
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